It Happens Only In India: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

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The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is India's national space agency. With its headquarters in Bangalore, the ISRO employs approximately 20,000 people, with a budget around 815 million USD at March 2006 exchange rate. Its mandate is the development of technologies related to space and their application to India's development. The current Chairman of ISRO is G. Madhavan Nair. In addition to domestic payloads, it offers international launch services. ISRO currently launches satellites using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and the GSLV for geostationary satellites.

History of Indian space research

India's experience in rocketry began in ancient times when fireworks were first used in the country, a technology invented in neighbouring China, and which had an extensive two-way exchange of ideas and goods with India, connected by the Silk Road. Military use of rockets by Indians during the Mysore War against the British inspired William Congreve to invent the Congreve rocket, predecessor of modern artillery rockets, in 1804. After India gained independence from British occupation in 1947, Indian scientists and politicians recognized the potential of rocket technology in both defence applications, and for research and development. Recognizing that a country as demographically large as India would require its own independent space capabilities, and recognising the early potential of satellites in the fields of remote sensing and communication, these visionaries set about establishing a space research organisation.

1960-1970

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was the founding father of the Indian space program, and is considered a scientific visionary by many, as well as a national hero. After the launch of Sputnik in 1957, he recognized the potential that satellites provided. India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who saw scientific development as an essential part of India's future, placed space research under the jurisdiction of the Department of Atomic Energy in 1961. The DAE director Homi Bhabha, who was father of India's atomic programme, then established the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) with Dr. Sarabhai as Chairman in 1962.

Unlike every other major space programme with the exception of Japan and Europe, India's capabilities were not born out of an existing military ballistic missile programme, but instead out of the practical goal of eventually having satellite launch capabilities. From its establishment in 1962, the Indian space programme began establishing itself with the launch of sounding rockets, which was complimented by India's geographical proximity to the equator. These were launched from the newly-established Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), built near Thiruvananthapuram in southern Kerala. Initially, American sounding rockets like the Nike-Apache, and French sounding rockets like the Centaure, were fired and used for studying the upper atmospheric electrojet, which until then had only been studied from ship-based sounding rocket launches in the Pacific Ocean. These were soon followed by British and Russian rockets. However, since day one, the space programme had grand ambitions of developing indigenous technology and India soon began developing its own sounding rockets, using solid propellants - these were called the Rohini family of sounding rockets.

Recognizing the need for indigenous technology, and the possibility of future instability in the supply of parts and technology, the Indian space programme endeavoured to indigenize every material supply route, mechanism and technology. As the Indian Rohini programme continued to launch sounding rockets of greater size and complexity, the space programme was expanded and eventually given its own government department, separate from the Department of Atomic Energy. In 1969 the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was created from the INCOSPAR programme under the DAE, continued under the Space Commission and finally the Department of Space, created in June of 1972.

1970-1980

In the 1960s, Sarabhai had taken part in an early study with NASA regarding the feasibility of using satellites for applications as wide as direct television broadcasting, and this study had found that it was the most economical way of transmitting such broadcasts. Having recognized the benefits that satellites could bring to India from the very start, Sarabhai and the ISRO set about designing and creating an independent launch vehicle, capable of launching into orbit, and providing the valuable experience needed for the construction of larger launch vehicles in future. Recognizing the advanced capability India had in building solid motors with the Rohini series, and that other nations had favoured solid rockets for similar projects, the ISRO set about building the technology and infrastructure for the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV). Inspired by the American Scout rocket, the vehicle would be a four-stage all-solid vehicle.

Meanwhile, India also began developing satellite technology, anticipating the remote sensing and communication needs of the future. India's first foray into space began with the launch of its satellite Aryabhata in 1975 by a Soviet booster. By 1979, the SLV was ready to be launched from a newly-established second launch site, the Shriharikota Rocket Launching Station (SRLS). The first launch in 1979 was a failure, attributed to a control failure in the second stage. By 1980 this problem had been worked out. The first indigenous satellite launched by India was called Rohini-1.

1980-1990

Following the success of the SLV, ISRO was keen to begin construction of a satellite launch vehicle that would be able to put truly useful satellites into polar orbits. Design of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) was soon underway. This vehicle would be designed as India's workhorse launch system, taking advantage of both old technology with large reliable solid-stages, and new liquid engines. At the same time, it was decided by the ISRO management that it would be prudent to develop a smaller rocket, based on the SLV, that would serve as a testbed for many of the new technologies that would be used on the PSLV. The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) would test technologies like strap-on boosters and new guidance systems, so that experience could be gained before the PSLV went into full production. This was in line with advice that Wernher von Braun had given when paying a visit to ISRO: "If you have to do anything in rocketry do it yourself, SLV-3 is a genuine Indian design and you may be having your own troubles. But you should always remember that we do not just build on success, we also build on failure".

Rather than indigenously develop liquid engines for the PSLV, the ISRO managed to strike a deal which would cut a couple of years from the development of a new engine. In exchange for a modest sum of money, and some Indian help with minor aspects of the production of the engine, France agreed to transfer technology for the Viking liquid engine to India. The deal was probably motivated in part by goodwill, but also by the fact that the French were at the time receiving little interest from the European community in the development of the Ariane launcher, forcing them to look elsewhere for support. The Indian version of this engine would be called Vikas.

Eventually, the ASLV was flight tested in 1987, but this launch was a failure. After minor corrections, another launch was attempted in 1988, this launch again failed, and this time a full investigation was launched into the cause, providing valuable experience, specifically because the ASLV's failure had been one of control - the vehicle could not be adequately controlled on removal of the stabilizing fins that were present on the SLV, so extra measures like improved manoeuvring thrusters and flight control system upgrades were added. The ASLV development had also proven useful in the development of strap-on motor technology.

1990-2000

It was not until 1992 that the first successful launch of the ASLV took place. At this point the launch vehicle, which could only put very small payloads into orbit, had achieved its objective. In 1993, the time had come for the maiden flight of the PSLV. The first launch was a failure. The first successful launch took place in 1994, and since then, the PSLV has become the workhorse launch vehicle - placing both remote sensing and communications satellites into orbit, creating the largest cluster in the world, and providing unique data to Indian industry and agriculture. Continual performance upgrades have increased the payload capacity of the rocket significantly since then.

By this time, with the launch of the PSLV not far away, it had been decided that work should begin on the next class of launch vehicles, intended to place larger satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), and thus a launcher partly derived from the PSLV design, but featuring large liquid strap-on motors and a cryogenic upper-stage motor, was devised - the Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle. Following the success of the Viking engine acquisition, ISRO had planned to acquire booster technology from the Russian space organization Glavkosmos. The United States, which had begun imposing restrictions on the Indian Space programme when India moved closer to the Soviet Union in the 1970s, opposed the technology transfer on non-proliferation grounds and imposed sanctions against ISRO in May, 1992. It is debatable as to whether this action by the US was relevant in terms of preventing proliferation, as cryogenic engines are never used in the construction of ballistic missiles, and India had plenty of technical capability to construct rockets anyway - some cite the incident as an example of rules being followed without reason.

Under pressure, Glavkomos halted the transfer of the associated manufacturing and design technology to India. Until then, ISRO had not been affected by technology transfer restrictions thanks to the political foresight of Sarabhai in indigenizing technology. However, when elements of the ISRO management cancelled indigenous cryogenic projects in anticipation of the Russian deal. Instead of cancelling the deal, Russia agreed to provide fully built engines instead, and India began developing an indigenous cryogenic engine to replace them, in the GSLV-II. There is still some controversy over the issue of the cryogenic engine acquisition, with many pointing to the decision to cancel indigenous projects as being a grave mistake - India would have likely had a fully indigenous engine operating by the time the GSLV launched if indigenous development had started from day one. Despite this one uncharacteristic slip in an otherwise extremely successful programme, and the loss of potential payload capacity over the decade that occurred as a result, ISRO pressed on.

2000-2010

In 2001, the first development flight of the GSLV took place. Despite this, the GSLV has had to suffer payload cutbacks, and has been delayed, leading some to question its usefulness as a launch vehicle. The indigenous cryogenic engine for the GSLV's upper stage will be flown in 2007. It is currently the most powerful Indian launch vehicle in operation. Due to the questionable effectiveness of the GSLV for the needs of the current decade, ISRO began development of a new launch vehicle, the GSLV Mark III (gsLVM3), which despite its name, is not at all related to the GSLV-I/II, but is in fact a new heavy launch vehicle, that will incorporate larger versions of proven technology, and be indigenously built. Based around the proven format of liquid main stages and two solid strap-on boosters, the GSLV Mark III (GSLV-Mk.3) will resemble the Ariane-5 and several other modern launchers. The first flight is scheduled for 2008. Although India has expressed the opinion that it can fulfil space interests without the need for manned missions, the GSLV-M3 would provide more than enough payload capacity for manned spaceflight.

India is developing a project to send an unmanned probe to the moon in 2008, as a first attempt at exploration of the solar system. This project, called Chandrayaan, will use a modified PSLV rocket to send a small probe into lunar orbit, from where it will survey the surface of the moon in greater detail than ever before, in an attempt to locate resources - other countries including the US have expressed interest in attaching their own payloads to the mission. Recently, during the visit of NASA chief Mike Griffin to India, ISRO and NASA entered into an agreement for carrying two NASA probes as a payload. Another more long-term project that has been underway, is the effort to develop a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) called AVATAR, similar to many other countries, but only for the launch of satellites. Theoretically such a vehicle, designed on the basis of scramjet technology, would be able to launch small satellites into orbit for a fraction of the cost of current launches, opening up many potential commercial avenues, and making certain satellite technologies feasible for the first time. A scaled-down technology demonstrator is scheduled to fly around 2008. Recently ISRO tested a scramjet air breathing engine which produced Mach 6 for seven seconds and it was successful. ISRO is continuing research related to using scramjets in RLVs after 2010.

ISRO has also entered the lucrative market of launching payloads of other nations upon its rockets from Indian soil. The upcoming launches of a spy satellite of Israel Space Agency in mid 2007, and of the Israeli Tauvex-II satellite, scheduled for launch in mid-2007. The CARTOSAT-II, launched on the July 2006, carries a small Indonesian payload of 56 kg.

ISRO centres

These centers are related to the ISRO:

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC)
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SHAR)
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC)
Space Applications Centre (SAC)
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC)
INSAT Master Control Facility (MCF)
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU)
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) (previously National Mesosphere/Stratosphere Troposphere Radar Facility (NMRF))
Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL)

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram

The Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology is the national institute for the study and development of space science. Located in Ponmudi near Thiruvananthapuram, it offers undergraduate and graduate courses, and also serves as a research center. It is sponsored by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) under the Government of India Department of Space.

Major events

1962: Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR); formed by the Department of Atomic Energy, and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) near Trivandrum began.
1963: First sounding rocket launched from TERLS on November 21, 1963.
1965: Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.
1967: Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.
1972: Space Commission and Department of Space set up.
1975: First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975).
1976: Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.
1979: Bhaskara-1, an experimental satellite launched. First experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini satellite on board failed.
1980: Second experimental launch of SLV-3 Rohini satellite successfully placed in orbit.
1981: APPLE, an experimental geostationary communication satellite successfully launched on June 19.
1981: Bhaskara-II launched on November 20.
1982: INSAT-1A launched (April); deactivated in September.
1983: Second launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit. INSAT-1B launched.
1984: Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April). Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to reach space.
1987: ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board launched.
1988: First Indian remote sensing satellite, IRS-1A launched. INSAT-1C launched (July). Abandoned in November.
1990: INSAT-1D launched successfully.
1991: Launch of second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B (August).
1992: Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROCC-C on board (May). Satellite placed in orbit. First indigenously built satellite INSAT-2A launched successfully.
1993: INSAT-2B launched in July successfully. First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board fails.
1994: Fourth developmental launch of ASLV successful (May). Second developmental launch of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with IRS-P2 successfully (October).
1995: INSAT-2C launched in December. Third operational IRS (IRS) launched.
1996: Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 successful (March).
1997: INSAT-2D launched in June became inoperational in October. Arabsat1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, acquired in November. First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D successful (September).
1998: INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from Arabsat (January).
1999: INSAT-2E the last satellite in the multi-purpose INSAT-2 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana (April 3, 1999). IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite launch vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota (26 May 1999).
2000: INSAT-3B was launched on 22 March 2000.
2001: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle-D1 (GSLV-D1), the first developmental launch of GSLV with GSAT-1 onboard partially successful.
2002: INSAT-3C launched successfully by Arianespace (January), PSLV-C4 launches KALPANA-1 (September).
2003: GSLV-D2, the second developmental launch of GSLV with GSAT-2 successful (May).
2004: First operational flight of GSLV (F01) successfully launches EDUSAT (September).
2005: Launch of CARTOSAT and HAMSAT by PSLV-C6 from the second launch pad (Universal Launch Pad) (May). INSAT 4A Launched successfully by the European Ariane-5G.
2006: Second operational flight of GSLV (F02) unsuccessful July 10, 2006. GSLV-F02 was carrying INSAT-4C.
2007: Successful launch of CARTOSAT-2, SRE-1, LAPAN-TUBSAT and PEHUENSAT-1 on PSLV C7 on January 10, 2007.
2007: SRE-1 splashed down in the Bay of Bengal on January 22, 2007 and was successfully recovered by the Indian Coast Guard and Indian Navy, making India one of the few countries to have re-entry technology.
2007: INSAT-4B successfully launched by Arianespace on March 12.
2007: PSLV-C8 successfully places an Italian satellite, AGILE into its orbit on April 23.
2007: INSAT-4CR was successfully placed in orbit, on the 2nd of Sept 2007, 6.21pm from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, on a GSLV-F04 rocket. It is the first INSAT satellite which was successfully launched from India.

Satellites

Since its formation, ISRO has launched numerous satellites; they include the IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) satellite series, the INSAT (Indian National Satellite) series (in Geo-Stationary orbit), the GSAT series (launched using GSLV) and METSAT 1 (launched by PSLV). As of 2007, the total number of satellites of all varieties built by ISRO is 45.

INSAT series

The Insat series of satellites includes the 1 (A, B, C, D), 2 (A, B, C, D), 3 (A, B, C, E) and 4 (A, B, C) series. They provide Communication and Television relay services all over India. Most of these satellites were launched by the Arianespace for ISRO. But, the latest in the series, the INSAT-4CR, was launched on September 2, 2007 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota with India’s own Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV-F04,. This was the fifth flight of GSLV.

IRS series

The IRS series provide remote sensing services and are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D). The future versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat. Some of the satellites have alternate designations based on the launch number and vehicle.

METSAT/Kalpana series

METSAT or Meteorological Satellite, is the first satellite built by ISRO to provide meteorological information and data. In 2003, METSAT was renamed as Kalpana in honour of the late astronaut Kalpana Chawla. METSAT 2/Kalpana 2 is expected to be launched by 2007

Technology Experiment Satellite

As the name suggests, Technology Experiment Satellite is an experimental satellite aimed primarily at fulfilling the role of spy satellite. The satellite has an image resolution of 1m or less, making India the only country after US to offer such high-resolution images commercially. The Kargil War prompted the rapid inclusion of a dedicated espionage satellite. It was first used to produce images of Iraqi military installations that were destroyed after US invasion in 2003.

Future plans

ISRO has begun the development of a mission to the Moon, named Chandrayaan-1. It will be India's first step towards exploration of deep space. In 2005, the Indian government approved Rs.364 crore (3,640,000,000) Indian rupees for the planned moon mission expected to be launched by 2008. It is interesting to note that apart from ISRO made instruments, Chandrayaan carries science instruments from NASA and ESA as opportunity payloads free of cost and with the understanding of sharing the data from the instruments. If the mission goes as planned, ISRO would be the sixth space agency in the world, after the Soviet Union, NASA, Japan, European Space Agency and China, to have sent an unmanned mission to the Moon. ISRO also plans to undertake a totally indigenous manned space exploration in the next decade by planning to send a person to space by 2014.

ISRO has started the development of the next launch vehicle version, known as the GSLV Mark-III, with an indigenous cryogenic engine capable of launching satellites weighing up to 6 tons in the final configuration. ISRO will be launching various satellites for European and Russian space programs including Agile and the GLONASS series of navigation satellites. In December 2005, during the annual Indo-Russian summit in Moscow, the two states agreed on joint development of the GLONASS-K series, which will be launched by Indian launchers. ISRO also plans to launch payloads SRE-1, RISAT-1, ASTROSAT, OCEANSAT series, INSAT series, CARTOSAT series, and GSAT series over the next couple of years. The RLV-TD, a technology demonstrator of possible scramjet launch technology, will fly around 2008.

The ISRO decade plan includes the following launch schedule:

2006-2007 - Three GSLV launches, (GSLV-D3, F2, F3). Launch of OCEANSAT-2, GSAT-4, INSAT-4D.
2007-2008 - Three PSLV launches, (PSLV-C9, C10, C11), two GSLV launches (GSLV-F4, F5), and one GSLV-III launch (GSLV-III-D1). Launch of CHANDRAYAAN, ASTROSAT, RISAT-1, GSAT (MK III), INSAT-3D and INSAT-4E.

Launch vehicles

The Satellite Launch Vehicle was mainly used for the launching of experimental Rohini Satellites, and was a technology bridge. The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle was mainly used for the launching of Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS) satellites, and also served as a technology bridge. The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle serves as a small-medium satellite launching workhorse for the ISRO. The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle serves as a medium lifter. The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III will be a medium-heavy lifter. The Reusable Launch Vehicle project is intended as a cheap way of launching small satellites.

Past

Sounding Rockets

Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) - an all-solid four-stage satellite launch vehicle. The SLV can place 40 kg into low earth orbit.
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) - an all-solid five-stage satellite launch vehicle. The ASLV can place 150 kg into low earth orbit.

Present

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) - a four-stage rocket with liquid and solid stages. The PSLV can place 1600 kg into polar sun synchronous orbit.

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark I/II (GSLV-I/II) - a three-stage rocket with solid, liquid and cryo stages. The GSLV can place 2200 kg into geostationary transfer orbit.

Future

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-III) - a three-stage rocket with solid, liquid and cryo stages. The GSLV can place 4000-6000 kg into geostationary transfer orbit.

Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) - a small remote-piloted scramjet vehicle called AVATAR. The RLV will place small satellites into LEO and can be reused for at least 100 launches reducing the cost of launching satellites.

Launch facilities

ISRO operates 3 launch stations:

Thumba (TERLS - Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station/Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, Kerala),
Shriharikota (SRLS - Shriharikota Rocket Launching Station/Satish Dhawan Space Center, Andhra Pradesh).
Balasore (BRLS - Balasore Rocket Launching Station, Orissa).

The Shriharikota range is used for launch of satellites and multi-stage rockets. The launch station has two launch pads including the newest Universal Launch Pad. The two launch pads allow the station to hold up to 6 launches per year. The other two launch facilities are capable of launching sounding rockets, and other small rockets that don't produce spent stages.

Opinions and analysis

Historical Budget

Year	Indian Rupee	Exchange Rate	US dollar
2001			~505m
2004-05	~25bn
2005-06	31.48bn		~722m
2006-07	29.97bn		~800m
2007-08	38.60bn		~1000m

In common with other national space programmes, the ISRO attracts comparison, criticism, and praise.

Comparison with other space agencies

It is suggested that in terms of technical expertise and experience, ISRO is close to other major Asian space programs, especially China, and in some respects to Japan. Continued development of reliable and cost-effective launch platforms are expected to see commercial costs of launching payloads on Indian rockets fall, perhaps by as much as fifty percent. Once established, the Indian GSLV-III should be able to place 4000 to 6000 kg payloads into GTO.

In terms of funding, at approx. $800mn, ISRO and Russian Space Agency currently enjoy similar levels of financial support. At same time, ISRO's budget is likely to expand as India's economic growth continues. Compared to the US, which spends around $16bn, ESA's $3.5bn ( or $7bn with other European nations), Japan's $1.6bn, and China's $1.2bn, this amount is fairly modest. However, it has also been pointed out that the budget figure is much higher for India and China when accounting for purchasing power parity (PPP). Due to lower cost of living in these countries, the amount of capital invested upon wages and employment are much lower, than, say in the US, where more than a third of the budget goes into wages and similar services. Canada and Brazil with $300mn and $35mn respectively spend relatively less on their space programs.

Despite ISRO's modest funding, it appears to have achieved reasonable successes. India is counted amongst the six major space powers of the world, and is among the top nations in Asia in terms of success and future potential in space. Indian launch vehicles have the capacity for human spaceflight^,however, ISRO has stated that it can achieve all India's commercial and scientific needs through unmanned spaceflight alone, raising the question of whether a crewed spaceflight will occur.

Question of crewed missions

Although India has already sent its first cosmonaut Rakesh Sharma, into space with the Soviet Intercosmos program aboard the Soyuz T-11 capsule on April 2, 1984, the question of sending a human independently has been raised.

The question of having a manned space programme in future was first substantially raised in November 2006 in the form a proposal. It outlined a goal which would be to design, develop and launch an Indian human spacecraft, a two-seat space capsule, which would be used to send an Indian into space by 2015 . The vehicle would be launched by India’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-Mk II).

Government has approved the project and allocated 50 crores for pre-project initiatives for 2007-08. A manned mission into space would require about Rs. 10,000 crore ($3 billion) over an eight-year period.

The first signs of having a manned space programme was the 600-kg Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later. This demonstrates India's capability to develop heat resistant materials necessary for re-entry technology.

Despite this, India's attitude towards crewed spaceflight seems to be conservative, with the ISRO believing it can accomplish all its goals through unmanned spaceflight alone. ISRO recently announced its intent to put an Indian in space by 2014.