Indian Martial Arts

The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts. Dhanurveda (from dhanusveda "knowledge") is the term for the "science of archery in Pauranic literature, later applied to martial arts in general.

Ancient India developed a number of martial arts. Martial arts of the Indian subcontinent are diverse in nature and have origins of different times from various different regions. Some of the older traditions include the organised martial systems practiced by the Kshatriya warrior caste of Hinduism. These systems include armed and unarmed combat, and aspects such as meditation and mental conditioning. Many ancient Hindu temples have statues of deities and warriors in various postures related to combat. A number of ancient Dravidian martial arts were developed in South India, including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat) and Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in Tamil Nadu, and Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and defend) in Kerala.

The theories behind Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, such as Kundalini (coiled energy), Prana (life force), Nadi (meridians), Chakra (aura) and Marmam (pressure points), are also present in Indian martial arts.

History

Early martial traditions find mention in Indian literature, including Vedic literature dating back to the Vedic period, such as the Rig Veda (6.75.2), Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, and epic literature such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

The Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge. Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the Vishnu Purana and the Siva Dhanur Veda of the Gupta Empire, the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century), which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier. It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat. The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident. The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.

The earliest evidence of the concept of vital pressure points also dates back to the Rig Veda where Indra is recorded to have defeated Vritra by attacking his vital pressure points (marman) with his vajra. References are also found in the Atharva Veda. With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points. Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita. Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.

Indian works of art, particularly in temple sculptures show warriors in positions related to the martial arts.

Classical Indian martial arts

Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of Malla-yuddha (more commonly known as Mallayuddha), a form of combat wrestling codified into four forms, which is described in the ancient Indian epics as the fighting style of warriors such as Bhima. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in ancient India at the time when the oral tradition of the Mahabharata epic was conceived. The Mahabharata was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in Vedic India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia BC. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era.

The Mahabharata describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists. Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two fighters boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts. Other boxing fights are also described in Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds. Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independently of, each other. Hindu press ups and Hindu squats used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.

Ancient Dravidian martial arts, and the word "kalari", are mentioned in Sangam literature from the 2nd century BC. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam. The word "kalari" appears in the Puram and Akam to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena.

The references to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature dating back to the 2nd century refer to the sale of Silamabam staves, swords, pearls and armor to foreign traders. The ancient trading centre at the city of Madurai was renowned globally and was frequented by Romans, Greeks and Egyptians among others who had regular sea trade with the ancient Tamil kings. The silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, which was in great demand with the visitors.

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. The Lotus Sutra (ca. 1st century AD) refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri. The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws, and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara.Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta. Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.

Like other branches of Sanskrit literature, treatises on martial arts become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. The Sushruta Samhita (ca. 3rd century) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body. Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.

The Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge. Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other Sanskrit texts such as the Vishnu Purana and the Siva Dhanur Veda of the Gupta Empire, the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century), which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier. It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat. The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident. The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.

The martial art of Vajra Mushti was described in the Buddharata Sutra, written down by the 5th century, but based on earlier material used by the Kshatriya warrior caste. Indian military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The Kama Sutra written by Vātsyāyana at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow." Around this time, Tantrickundalini energy, chakras, and mantras. philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as

Medieval Indian martial arts

Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing, and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the Agni Purana.

Martial arts were not exclusive to the Kshatriya warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at salad and ghatika educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India, Rajasthan and Bengal) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."

The modern forms of Marma Adi, Varma Ati, and Kalarippayattu were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties.

Indian martial arts during Western imperialism

Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of the British Raj. More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties. The British Raj eventually banned Kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.

The resurgence of public interest in Kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India.

During the period, Indian wrestling became prominent in western catch wrestling tournaments.

Indian weapons

According to P C Chakravati in The Art of War in Ancient India, Indian armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped spears, swords, thatched bomboo shields, wooden shields, metal shields, axes, short bows and long bows in warfare as early as the invasion of India by the forces of Alexander of Macedon, and these weapons are all mentioned in even earlier native texts. Some troops in ancient times wore personal armor, but the majority did not until medieval times. Armed forces were largely standardised, and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable Indian martial art, other than standard military drills. Over time, weapondary evolved, and India became famed for its flexible wootz steel. Invasion in the 13th century from the pourous northwestern mountain passes that lead from Cerntal Asia and the Middle East into India, likely inspired new forms of weapondary, such as the talwar, a curved blade resembling Persian and Turkic arms. Curved blades had been used in India since ancient times, some even curved toward the cutting side like a sickle, but before the introduction of the talwar, the stright khanda type sword may have enjoyed greater popularity. Martial artists, typically coming from warrior jatis, employed other uniquely weapons such as the katarurumi sword-whip. sword-gauntlet and

Influence of Indian martial arts

The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the Indosphere, those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include Bando, Silat, Escrima, and Muay Thai.

The Tamil kingdoms were instrumental in the spread of Silambam throughout Southeast Asia. During the 18th and the 19th centuries Silambam was much more prevalent in Southeast Asia than in India, where it was banned by the British government.

India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of Jogo do Pau.

The practice of Indian clubs swinging was first introduced to England by British soldiers who had studied the discipline while stationed in India during the 1800s. The Indian clubs were used by military cadets and appeared as a gymnastic event in the 1904 Olympics. Gymnasiums were built just to cater to club exercise groups.

Russian officials travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, "Dinamo", to observe its native martial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo. V.A. Spiridinov was assigned to Mongolia, China and India to research the Mongol-Vedic martial arts.

The Indian wrestling form of Pehlwani has influenced both catch wrestling and it's derivative system of shoot wrestling. Karl Istaz applied the training methods of Indian wrestlers to shoot wrestling; this philosophy was later passed on to several of his students.

Doshin So mentions the Shaolin murals of Indian and Chinese monks sparring together for spiritual edification as his main inspiration for the creation of Shorinji Kempo.

In addition, modern martial arts such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu credit India as a founding influence on their fighting principles.

FYI: There are many external links (text with blue color) in the post, please use them for more information and to check for terminologies.

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